Knowledge for Development

Relevant publications


Africa: Smallholder Farming in Difficult Circumstances: Policy Issues for Africa

This paper identifies major trends and near-term processes affecting the future of the small farm in the region, identifies policy responses and public investment strategies by African governments, governments of high-income countries, and multilateral donors that are likely to be required to give the small farm the chance to be viable in an increasingly globalized world. The main messages of this paper are that (1) the challenges facing small farms in difficult circumstances is largely the same set of challenges involved in achieving broad-based agricultural growth and rural development; (2) the keys to reviving the health of the small farm sector in Africa involve the supportive decisions of national and international actors - it is not simply a matter of local communities organizing themselves effectively, because they lack the resources to counteract the effects of much larger forces and decisions under national and international jurisdiction; (3) over the long run, the most optimistic scenario for the small farm sector is likely to involve enabling most smallholder households to exit farming by being ‘pulled' into other sectors of the economy through rising demand for non-farm jobs that, as history has shown, generally starts with sustained agricultural productivity growth; and (4) a meaningful agricultural growth strategy aimed to support the small farm, including those in the most difficult circumstances, will need to match recent promises of support for 'pro-poor' agricultural growth with necessary financial support and policy attention. Doing so will be crucial to generating the economy wide benefits to the poor associated with inter-sectoral multiplier effects associated with structural transformation (taken from the introduction). PDF version

28/06/2006


Pacific: Pacific 2020 Background Paper: Agriculture

This paper offers projections of likely best and worst case scenarios for the agricultural sectors of the Pacific island countries in the year 2020. A discussion is then made of possible strategies to help achieve the projected best case scenario. This is followed by a number of recommendations for policy action. Rural people could improve their livelihoods by taking advantage of identified agricultural opportunities:  enhancing household self-sufficiency; supplying growing urban, rural and tourism markets; increasing traditional tree crop exports; exporting to Pacific island and Asian communities; and, exporting new horticultural and spice products in which they have a comparative advantage. A key role for agricultural policy is to empower people to take advantage of agricultural opportunities. Such empowerment requires policymakers and donors to Develop agricultural opportunities and Empower people. Such empowerment requires policymakers and donors to recognize small-scale farmers as part of the private sector. There is a need to build public and private sector partnerships that accept that agricultural development is led by the private sector, with government playing a facilitating role.   Pacific 2020 Background Paper: Agriculture

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Linking market development to farming systems in the Pacific Islands

The first substantive part of this report, Chapter 2, deals with traditional farming systems and economic performance, and the second part, Chapter 3, with developing commercial markets based on these traditional systems. The report focuses on Fiji and Vanuatu. Fiji, which is often presented as a model for other Pacific island countries to emulate, has a useful experience of market and marketing development. Vanuatu has rich land resources and a vibrant traditional production base yet, along with most Pacific island countries, faces severe, often intractable, marketing constraints. Linking market development to farming systems in the Pacific Islands

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Africa: Local innovations using traditional vegetables to improve soil quality

In 2002, fieldwork was carried out in 8 parishes in Uganda to study the use of indigenous knowledge in producing and consuming traditional vegetables such as "nakati" (Solanum aethiopicum), "ebugga" (Amaranthus dubius), "entula" (Solanum aethiopicum gilo), and "ejobyo" (Cleome gynandra). The proportion of land allocated for traditional vegetables has steadily increased since the 1970s, although exotic vegetables with their premium prices continue to have a greater land allotment. As mineral fertilizers were expensive and manure was still scarce, farmers tried to develop alternative methods to maintain the soil fertility, including fallowing and the incorporation of crop residues. They had found that the residues of traditional vegetables were particularly beneficial and had started rotating traditional vegetables with exotic ones such as common bean and tomato. While farmers did not have any formal networks for sharing knowledge, exchanges between friends, neighbours, and family seem to be effective. (It is extracted from an unpublished report by Hart, T, Abaijuka, I, Kawongolo, J, Rubaihayo, E, Kakonge, E & Mugisha, J (2002) 'The Identification and Recording of Indigenous Knowledge using Rapid Rural Appraisal Techniques: The cultivation and utilisation of Indigenous vegetables in the Mpigi District, Uganda.' The author acknowledges the contributions of the Ugandan researchers from the National Agricultural Research Organisation and Makerere University, Kampala.) Africa: Local innovations using traditional vegetables to improve soil quality Also available at KIT Library: KIT(K3019)

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Africa: Indigenous knowledge and rural livelihood improvement

This paper published in PLEC News and Views argues that despite continued national and international efforts to eradicate rural poverty, this cannot be achieved unless farmers’ knowledge, preferences and practices are recognized by all scientists and taken into consideration when developing improved technologies. Farmers should be the agents responsible for change. Examples of soil and crop improvement from two Sukuma villages, Ngudama and Buganda, near Mwanza, Tanzania are presented. The author concludes by stating that there are many examples where technologies developed by research and learning institutions are not being adopted by farmers in villages very close to these institutions. Most farmers maintain traditional practices without adopting improved technologies available from only a short distance away. The paper shows the role farmers play in enhancing and managing agricultural biodiversity and use their knowledge of soils and crops for their own livelihood improvement. Production risks due to uncertainties in production levels, access and availability of basic resources like labour and cash, and production limitations like land pressure make farmers develop intricate ways of managing resources. Addressing agricultural diversity or agro-biodiversity with farmers and on farmers own farms is actually perpetuating and improving indigenous knowledge and rural livelihood improvement. Real rural livelihood improvement can only be realized if outsiders respect farmers’ knowledge and practices and build on it together with them (abstract taken from the original paper’s introduction and conclusion). Fidelis B.S. Kaihura is Head of Natural Resources Management Research, Lake Zone Agricultural Research and Training Institute Ukiriguru, Mwanza, Tanzania. Africa: Indigenous knowledge and rural livelihood improvement

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Africa: Conservation Agriculture as a labour saving practice for vulnerable households

The availability of farm power is central to the success of initiatives to increase food production. It determines, in part, the area under cultivation, the timeliness of operations, the effective utilization of other inputs and ultimately, the productivity of the system. One potential pathway for reducing the labour and farm power demand for small-scale agricultural production systems could be a shift from conventional farming practices (such as land clearance, ploughing, planting and hand weeding by hoe) to more innovative practices that make use of less labour. Tools and implements such as the jab planter and the animal drawn ripper or no-tillage planter, in combination with agronomic practices that have the potential to suppress weeds through soil cover and the introduction of cover crops, form a set of possibilities. The results of the study provide initial indications that a fundamental change in agricultural practices towards reduced or minimum tillage combined with cover crops can be followed by households having a low asset base. Such vulnerable households must, however, be provided with adequate technical assistance, training and institutional support. Africa: Conservation Agriculture as a labour saving practice for vulnerable households

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Africa: Commentaries on Technology

Need for emphasis on new technologies or adaptive research on existing technologies that address the situations, concerns, and values of small farmers cannot be denied (statement in chapter 12 of Accelerating Food Production in Sub-Saharan Africa published in 1987). Chapter 12 in: Accelerating Food Production in Sub-Saharan Africa (edited by John W. Mellor,Christopher L. Delgado, and  Malcolm J. Blackie) provides commentaries on technology. One of the authors of this chapter emphasizes the importance that: small-scale farmers play a critical role in the thrust to increase agricultural production, but this has not had much impact on research strategies and priorities. This is an area that requires greater emphasis in the future. Small-scale farmers should not only be studied but should be the focal point of technology generation and extension development. The success or failure of research and extension will largely depend on how they increase these farmers' productivity. Limited success in technology transfer from large-scale to small-scale sectors has been reported. However, these successes are largely atypical, especially in the food production sector. The need for emphasis on new technologies or adaptive research on existing technologies that address the situations, concerns, and values of small farmers cannot be denied (paragraph taken from first part of chapter 12). Africa: Commentaries on Technology

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Pacific: Regional Workshop on Increasing Awareness on the Value of Traditional Mixed Cropping Systems and Agroforestry in Ensuring Food Security in the Pacific Region

The 2005 Regional Workshop on Increasing Awareness on the Value of Traditional Mixed Cropping Systems and Agroforestry in Ensuring Food Security in the Pacific Region was held in Samoa from 12th -16th of September, 2005. The goal was to improve food security and generate employment in the South Pacific Region. Specific Objectives with regards to mixed-cropping farming systems and agro- forestry in the Pacific Island countries the project objectives were: (1) to increase awareness on the importance, constraints and potentials of the systems; (2) to increase capacity in terms of ameliorating and promoting the diffusion of such systems; and, (3) to outline a way forward for establishing regional information sharing mechanisms on the subject. An overview and cases of existing mixed cropping and agro forestry farming systems are presented followed by sessions on improvement and sustainability of these systems, agro forestry techniques, and strategies for improving awareness and exchange on agro forestry and mixed cropping systems. Daily outcomes are presented in the annex. The major outcomes were the following: solution to lack of land due to slash and burn techniques is to modify traditional mixed cropping systems; improving integrated farming systems can be an alternative to sloping lands; assurance that policies are implemented, made aware of and respected; marketing and income generation are important; role of timber trees as multipurpose; use of GIS as a tool; make sure that new technologies do not fall between agencies; with regard to information sharing: the ultimate focus should be on farmers as they are the ones that really need information; and, an information network should be open to all stakeholders. Pacific: Regional Workshop on Increasing Awareness on the Value of Traditional Mixed Cropping Systems and Agroforestry in Ensuring Food Security in the Pacific Region

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Pacific: Promotion of local knowledge and innovations in Asia and the Pacific Region

The overall objectives of the study were to: (1) analyse the current practices and experiences of the Asia and the Pacific Division with regard to scouting, utilising and promoting local knowledge and innovations. The study also documented selected good practices and assessed how the rural people have used local knowledge and innovations to improve their livelihoods and whether this has led to their empowerment; and (2) provide building blocks to ensure greater mainstreaming of local knowledge and innovations into the regional strategy so that all activities in the region will incorporate them. In particular, a series of insights and recommendations was developed that would contribute to improving the design and implementation of IFAD-supported projects and programmes through enhanced use of local innovations, knowledge systems and partnerships. Important attention was devoted to the empowerment of local communities to become more active partners in project design and implementation, and the blending of ‘modern’ technology and local knowledge to capitalise on the best in local and external expertise. Pacific: Promotion of local knowledge and innovations in Asia and the Pacific Region - Thematic Evaluation: Agreement at Completion Point

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Africa: Agriculture and micro enterprise in Malawi's rural south

Changes in rural livelihoods in southern Malawi following market liberalization are reviewed and interpreted. Available evidence suggests that, by reducing household maize production, market liberalization has increased the need for resource-poor smallholders to develop market strategies that provide them with income security. Whereas previous scenarios for poverty elimination in Malawi were based either on Green Revolution technology or burley tobacco, the emerging scenario in the rural south is one where smallholders seek market niches that do not threaten household food supply. The potential of this market-based scenario for poverty elimination requires a greater understanding of the links between agriculture and micro-enterprise, 2 livelihood strategies that usually receive separate treatment in the development literature. Africa: Agriculture and micro enterprise in Malawi's rural south Also available at KIT library: KIT(E3161)

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Smallholder farming in less-favored areas: options for pro-poor and sustainable livelihoods

This paper was presented at the Future of Small Farms Research Workshop organized by IFPRI. It discusses the pros and cons of different development pathways available for smallholder development in Less Favoured Areas (LFAs). Given the variability of LFAs in terms of their agricultural potential (soil fertility and rainfall) and access (remoteness), different types of development options can be identified to address poverty and resource degradation. Instead of focusing only on resource use intensification, reinforcement of smallholder farming in LFAs asks for simultaneous efforts in the direction of production systems integration, searching for input complementarities, activity diversification, and selective market integration. To that effect, three different strategies are explored: a. Agricultural-based pathways that focus on investment in land resources for improving the productivity and sustainability of the natural resource base;  b. Employment-based pathways that intend to improve the returns to family labor through diversification of activities; c. Institution-based pathways that focus on the reduction of risk and transaction costs for improving the certainty of returns to investments (taken from the introduction). Smallholder farming in less-favored areas: options for pro-poor and sustainable livelihoods

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Role of modern Science and Technologies in agriculture for poverty alleviation in South Asia

The authors represent the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), in India and in this paper they refer to ICRISAT’s work in the South Asia region. This region is home to the largest number of poor people in the world. Nearly one third of all malnourished people in the world live in this region and they need access to affordable and nutritious food. Food security is a critical concern in South Asia, against the current background of rapid population growth. The resource poor small-scale farmers, who contribute substantially to food production in this region, need to be empowered with such appropriate technologies to enhance sustainable agricultural productivity and production. Modern science offers tremendous opportunities for improving the livelihood of poor farmers as well as protecting the environment. There are sceptics who may question the benefits of modern science, and even blame science for many of our current problems. Some are opposed to poor farmers using purchased inputs such as improved seeds, fertilizers and chemical pesticides since it makes them dependent on markets and private suppliers, and less self-reliant. It must be remembered, however, that modern science can serve poor farmers only if scientists focus on the interests of the underprivileged and smallholder farmers. This is called ‘Science with a Human Face’, and it is the guiding mantra of ICRISAT whose work is to be designed to solve poor people’s food and nutrition problems through good science in tandem with appropriate policies and institutions. Technology development must be demand driven i.e., it is based on the socio-economic and environmental needs and circumstances of resource-poor farmers (paragraphs taken from the original paper). Role of modern Science and Technologies in agriculture for poverty alleviation in South Asia

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From policy aims and small-farm characteristics to farm science needs

This paper addresses four questions, often treated separately, but necessarily linked. Each question is complex, and space is limited. 1. Given the high and usually rising share of farmland in small farms in most poor countries, and the evidence on how output per hectare varies with farm size, when and where is development based on small farms conducive to mass poverty reduction, and with what implications for the audience on which farm science should focus?; 2. Given what we know about how farms become and stay efficient, competitive, and poverty-reducing, what type of technical progress helps them do so—and is any type harmful?; 3. How can research lead to more of the 'helpful' technical progress and less of the 'harmful' sort—or, to disaggregate the question, what kind of research might improve smallholder access, or returns, to key inputs (water, seeds, fertilizer, and pest management)? If policy analysts know that, it helps them to decide what incentives, and to whom, will get appropriate research done. 4. Do the answers to the last two questions depend on changing global market requirements? In particular, can technical progress 'for small farms'—so far largely about production—respond to, or keep pace with, post-harvest changes (e.g., the rise of supermarkets) that challenge the foundation of small and family farms’ competitiveness: relatively low unit transaction costs of labor? (taken from the introduction). From policy aims and small-farm characteristics to farm science needs

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The Politics of and Policies for Smallholder Agriculture

This paper draws on experiences from eastern and southern Africa and from other developing countries. By using selected examples, an attempt is made to demonstrate that policies and politics have an effect on smallholder farmer’s agricultural growth. Policies need to be harmonized at local, national, regional, and global levels to benefit smallholder farmers. However, good policies alone will not necessarily create the desired impact, unless those policies are supported by political commitment in terms of financial resources and prioritized programs. Their implementation should also be closely monitored and evaluated to take corrective measures when needed to achieve the intended goals. Broad stakeholder participation, sufficient local implementing capacity, and effective coordination and accountability are vital for the successful implementation of policies that promote the smallholder farmer-led agricultural sector (taken from the introduction). The Politics of and Policies for Smallholder Agriculture

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An assessment of agricultural science and technology for development

How to reduce hunger and poverty, improve rural livelihoods, and facilitate equitable, environmentally, socially and economically sustainable development through the generation, access to, and use of agricultural knowledge, science and technology? The goal is to provide decision makers with the information they need to reduce hunger and poverty, improve rural livelihoods, and facilitate equitable, environmentally, socially and economically sustainable development through the generation, access to, and use of agricultural knowledge, science and technology. The Assessment would take interlinked short, medium and long-term perspectives(up to 2050) and use a multi-disciplinary approach to address the full range of agricultural products (crops, livestock, fisheries, forests, fiber, and biomass) and services. It would assess the economic, environmental, health and social (including gender) implications of current and potential future technologies. It would assess what can be learnt from the past by providing a critical retrospective of agricultural science and technology and the effectiveness of institutional arrangements, as well as focus on critical areas identified during the consultative process in relation to a plausible range of future scenarios. They include issues within the domain of global public goods that require international collaboration and discussion and issues characterized by rapidly changing contexts. The Assessment would be multi-scale, addressing global and sub-global (community to regional) issues. The global Assessment would address issues with broad relevance and would be interlinked with the sub-global (community to regional) Assessments. These sub-global Assessments, which would vary in scale from the continental to community level, would use a consistent methodology, cover a range of agro-ecological systems, and employ selection criteria that would take into account socio-economic and institutional conditions, and poverty mapping. An assessment of agricultural science and technology for development

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Global Farming Systems Study: Challenges and Priorities to 2030

The World Bank sought the assistance of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) in evaluating how farming systems might change and adapt over the next thirty years and prepare a supporting study with the following objective: 'On the basis of a determination of the principal trends and issues affecting major farming systems in each World Bank region over the next 30 years, propose operational strategies, approaches and technologies that will contribute to significant and sustainable rural development and poverty reduction among farming system participants.' The results of the study are summarized in a set of seven documents, comprising six regional reports and the global overview contained in this volume. This document, which synthesises the results of the six regional analyses as well as discussing global trends, cross-cutting issues and possible implementation modalities, presents an overview of the complete study. This document is supplemented by two case study reports of development issues of importance to farming systems globally. The concept of Farming Systems is described in the introduction - where farming systems are defined as populations of farms that have broadly similar resource bases, enterprise patterns, household livelihoods and constraints, and for which similar development strategies and interventions would be appropriate. The biophysical, economic and human elements of a farm are interdependent, and thus farms can be analysed as systems from various points of view. Chapters 3-8 provide an overview off the characteristics of the major regional farming systems, regional strategic priorities and maps are given for the sub-Saharan, the Middle East and North Africa, Eastern Europe and Central Asia, South Asia, East Asia and Pacific, Latin America and the Caribbean regions. Chapter 9 tackles issues like the challenge of contrasting farm characteristics, global challenges and priorities for the coming decades: achieving sustainable and productive use of natural resources, deploying science and technology, exploiting globalisation and market development, refocusing policies, institutions and public goods, and enhancing agricultural information and human capital. Chapter 10 deals with some operational implications and discusses topics like: demand-driven approaches to integrated rural development, support services and related institutions, financing instruments and assessing impact using farming systems frameworks. Global Farming Systems Study: Challenges and Priorities to 2030 - Synthesis And Global Overview

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Appropriate Technology For Sustainable Food Security

To be truly effective in helping the poor solve their food problems, modern science must focus on developing the technology and knowledge that most appropriately address these problems Modern science and technology is only one of many factors that will determine whether and to what extent the poor will benefit or lose from integrating into the exchange economy. Existing institutions and policies as well as the technology itself may be biased against the poor. Competitive markets for the goods and services produced by the poor may be absent. Government regulations on ICT may be such that the poor cannot benefit. Public or private monopolies may exploit the poor who try to participate. Technology suppliers’ owning patents or other intellectual property rights, as well as uneven distribution of market power between the poor and the suppliers, may facilitate exploitation of the poor. In such cases the dependency argument may be valid. For these reasons, efforts to guide modern science and technology to solve poor people’s food and nutrition problems are likely to be successful only if supported by appropriate policies and institutions. Modern technology should be viewed as part of a broader effort to help the poor solve their problems and not as a silver bullet applied in isolation. Recent dramatic changes in scientific methods and the resulting technologies have been accompanied by heated debate about these technologies and others on the horizon. What are the potential benefits and risks? What new policies and institutions are needed to achieve benefits without incurring unacceptable risks? What should be the roles of the private and the public sectors? Does new science infringe on societies’ and individuals’ values and ethical standards? Are the traditional approaches not better? Most of the debate takes place in rich countries among well-fed individuals. The most important question—how can modern science and technology help poor people escape poverty, hunger, and malnutrition—does not take a front seat in these debates. Neither do poor people. The best way to find out what poor and food insecure people want is to give them real choices. This set of briefs presents relevant evidence regarding actual and potential benefits and risks associated with a number of technology areas and contains suggestions for how the benefits can be enhanced and the risks reduced. The interaction between technology and policies is critically important. To be truly effective in helping the poor solve their food problems, modern science must focus on developing the technology and knowledge that most appropriately address these problems. With access to the results, poor people should then be empowered to design and implement their own solutions (from the introduction by the editor of this set of briefs). Appropriate Technology For Sustainable Food Security

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Precision Agriculture

CTA’s ICT update issue 30 of January 2006 focuses on precision farming, an advanced e-agriculture application that ICT experts are calling a true agricultural revolution. Examples of precision farming projects are provided, and web resources, background material and a Q&A page on precision farming are given. Precision Agriculture

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Africa: The effect of various technologies on the farming systems

"If the river bends, let the crocodile bend too": an analysis of farming systems in north-western Burkina Faso using mathematic programming models. During 1992-1996, field work was carried out in 3 villages in the provinces of Passore, Sourou and Yatenga, north-western Burkina Faso, to analyse the prospects for sustainable intensification of farming systems using low cost technologies. The study is limited to sedentary farmers and looks at decisions on production, storage and marketing of agricultural products, soil and water conservation strategies, and the integration of agriculture and livestock. A computer model was developed to analyse the effect of various technologies on the farming systems. It is shown that nutritional demands can be better satisfied if part of the cereal consumption is replaced by groundnuts, but it is recognized that it is difficult to change the modes of consumption of a traditional population. Both, the use of "zai" pits and rock lines reduce erosion, improve water conservation, and increase yields, especially in years of poor rainfall. The prospects for integrating livestock and agriculture are dim. One of the conclusions is that intensification projects are likely to fail, except in villages along main roads or irrigation development in the Sourou valley. In all other areas, an adaptive approach favouring low external input agriculture, will remain the most useful option.

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Africa: Collaboration between research institutions, and extension services, non-governmental and community-based organizations is needed for successful and sustainable implementation of a facilitated learning approach.

Facilitated learning in soil fertility management: assessing potentials of low-external-input technologies in east African farming systems The facilitated learning process of farm households and district policy-makers in addressing the problem of soil exhaustion is described. The process is applied in a case study in 4 districts in Kenya and Uganda during the period 1997 1999, where the potentials of low-external input agriculture (LEIA) practices in addressing the soil exhaustion problem were assessed. Working through an inclusive process of dialogue, observation, diagnosis, experimentation and exposure to different types of knowledge, participants made a thorough analysis of the current soil fertility situation and tested various LEIA options for improving soil fertility management. In all 4 research sites the future agricultural productivity is threatened by soil nutrient depletion. Maximal use of locally available nutrients through LEIA practices, combined with optimal use of external nutrients would be the most appropriate strategy. Long-term and intensive collaboration between research institutions on the one hand and extension services, non-governmental and community-based organizations on the other is needed for a successful and sustainable implementation of a facilitated learning approach. Involvement of stakeholders in the various stages of the research process, including the planning and project formulation is essential for an effective follow-up and implementation of the results. From abstract Elsevier Science Journal. 

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